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Nickel-Based Two-Electron Redox Shuttle for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells in Low Light Applications
Ravinder Kaur ; Niharika Dalpati ; Jared H. Delcamp , et al. ACS Appl. Energy Mater.,2024,7(9):3645-3655. DOI: 10.1021/acsaem.3c03198
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Abstract: Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are important to indoor solar powered devices and energy sustainable buildings because of their remarkable performance under indoor/ambient light conditions. Triiodide/iodide (I3–/I–) has been used as the most common redox mediator in DSCs because of its desirable kinetic properties and multielectron redox cycle. However, the low redox potential, corrosiveness, competitive visible light absorption, and lack of tunability of this redox mediator limit its performance in many DSC devices. Here we report a class of transition metal complex redox shuttles which operate on a similar multielectron redox cycle as I3–/I– while maintaining desirable kinetics and improving on its limitations. These complexes, nickel dithiocarbamates, were evaluated as redox shuttles in DSCs, which exhibited excellent performance under low light conditions. The recombination behavior of the redox shuttles with electrons in TiO2, dye regeneration behavior, and counter electrode electron transfer resistance were studied via chronoamperometry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Further, DSC devices were studied with the Ni-based redox shuttles via incident photon-to-current conversion efficiencies (IPCEs) and current–voltage (J–V) curves under varied light intensities. The Ni-based redox shuttles showed up to 20.4% power conversion efficiency under fluorescent illumination, which was higher than I3–/I–-based devices (13%) at similar electrolyte concentrations. Taken together, these results show that nickel dithiocarbamate redox shuttles have faster rates of dye regeneration than the I3–/I– shuttle but suffer from faster recombination of photoinjected electrons with oxidized Ni(IV) species, which decrease photovoltages.
Keywords: dye-sensitized solar cells ; nickel(IV) ; redox shuttle ; dithiocarbamate ; indoor photovoltaic
Purchased from AmBeed: 3978-81-2 ; 90076-65-6
CAS No. : | 90076-65-6 | MDL No. : | MFCD00210017 |
Formula : | C2F6LiNO4S2 | Boiling Point : | No data available |
Linear Structure Formula : | - | InChI Key : | QSZMZKBZAYQGRS-UHFFFAOYSA-N |
M.W : | 287.09 | Pubchem ID : | 3816071 |
Synonyms : |
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Signal Word: | Danger | Class: | 8,6.1 |
Precautionary Statements: | P260-P264-P270-P273-P280-P301+P310+P330-P301+P330+P331-P303+P361+P353-P304+P340+P310-P305+P351+P338+P310-P314-P361+P364-P405-P501 | UN#: | 2923 |
Hazard Statements: | H301+H311-H314-H372-H412 | Packing Group: | Ⅱ |
GHS Pictogram: |
* All experimental methods are cited from the reference, please refer to the original source for details. We do not guarantee the accuracy of the content in the reference.
Yield | Reaction Conditions | Operation in experiment |
---|---|---|
87.1% | In water; at 60℃; for 2h; | 2. Put 200g lithium bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide, 152g 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bromide salt and 400g pure water into the reactor,Warm to 60 , react for 2h,After standing for a while, 283 g of crude 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide salt was obtained. 3. Wash three times with pure water to obtain 251g of pure 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide salt.Distill it on a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure for 2h,Keep the temperature at 80 , remove most of the water,Finally, it is dried in a vacuum oven at 110 C for 12h.237 g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide was obtained. The purity of the product detected by liquid chromatography was 99.23%, and the yield was 87.1%;Ion chromatography detection: halogen ion 450ppm;ICP detection: Fe ion <1ppm, Pb ion <1ppm. |
86% | In water; at 20℃; for 2h;Heating / reflux; | 9.40 g of methylimidazole (0.115 mol) in 50 ml of ethyl acetate is introduced into a 500 ml three-necked flask equipped with a condenser. 14.25 g of ethyl bromide (0.126 mol) is added dropwise at ambient temperature. Then, the mixture is left for two hours under reflux before being extracted by three times 25 ml of ethyl acetate. The product is dried under vacuum at 70 C. for thirty minutes; this is ethylmethylimidazolium bromide. NMR 1H: (200 MHz, CD3CN): delta 9.42 (t, 1H, Ha); 7.63 (d, 1H, Hb); 7.55 (d, 1H, Hc); 3.93 (s, 3H, Hd); 4.28 (q, 2H, He); 1.50 (t, 3H, Hf) This product is added dropwise at ambient temperature to a mixture containing 50 ml of water and 31.37 g of lithium bis(trifluorosulphonyl)imide (0.109 mol). Then the mixture is stirred for two hours under reflux. The product is then extracted with three times 20 ml of dichloromethane before being evaporated under vacuum at 70 C. for 30 minutes. The overall yield is 86%. NMR 1H: (200 MHz, CD3CN): delta 8.46 (s, 1H, Ha); 7.42 (s, 1H, Hb); 7.37 (s, 1H, Hc); 3.93 (s, 3H, Hd); 4.28 (q, 2H, He); 1.50 (t, 3H, Hf) |
In water; at 70℃; for 24h;pH 6.0; | General procedure: The respective halide IL was dissolved in deionized water (pH =6) and after an equimolar amount of LiNTf2 in water had been added dropwise, the reaction mixture was stirred for 1 day at 70 C. Then CH2Cl2 was added and the aqueous phase was removed. The organic phase was washed halide-free with deionized water (AgNO3 test). The solution was filtered over a column filled with neutral Al2O3 and activated charcoal. The organic solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the reaction product finally dried under dynamic vacuum for 1-2 days at 80-90 C. |
383.5 g | In water; | Step 1: Take 287.1g of lithium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI) completely dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution with a mass percentage concentration of 50%; Step 2: 191.1 g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (EMIBr) was completely dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution having a mass percentage concentration of 50% Step 3: mixing the aqueous solution products obtained in steps 1 and 2 to obtain a crude product; Step 4: The crude product is obtained in step 3, washed with water for 2 times, emulsified by heating and stirring, and heated to 60 DEG C for demulsification, and then high purity product is obtained after liquid separation; Step 5: The high-purity product obtained in Step 4 was vacuum-dried at 100 C for 8 hours to obtain 383.5 g of colorless liquid EMI · TFSI product (melting point: about -15 C), purity: 99.95%, water content: 80 ppm, . |
Yield | Reaction Conditions | Operation in experiment |
---|---|---|
62% | In acetonitrile; at 20℃; for 48h; | The ionic liquid EMI?TFSI- was synthesized by a one step methathesis: 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumchloride EMI?Cl- (1.465 g, 0.01 mol) and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) (2.871 g, 0.01 mol) were dissolved in acetonitrile intwo separate vials. An anion-exchange reaction occurred after adding slowly (drop bydrop) LiTFSI solution in a 10 mL round-bottom flask containing the EMI?Cl- solution,whereby the mixture was precipitated. Then, the reaction mixture was stirred at 500 rpm atroom temperature for 48 h. After removal of the solvent, the mixture was washedrepeatedly with water until the Cl- could not be detected by addition of AgNO3 solution.The organic phase was collected in a vial and was passed at least twice through Celitesilica column with ethyl acetate to completely remove Cl-. After removal of the solvent,the final product was dried under vacuum to give a yellowish liquid (2.347 g, 62 %). |
Yield | Reaction Conditions | Operation in experiment |
---|---|---|
In dichloromethane; water; at 20.0℃; for 24.0h; | General procedure: A dried 250 ml round bottom flask was prepared, and 50 ml of DCM (dichloromethane) was added to 1-(Trimethylsilyl)methyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium chloride (10 g, 0.05 mol) and stirred at room temperature.Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (9.2 g, 0.05 mol) and 50 ml of DIW (distilled water) were dissolved in a dropping funnel and added dropwise over 10 minutes.After completion of dropwise addition, the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours.After completion of the reaction, the organic layer is separated using a separator funnel,The organic layer was washed with 50 ml of DIW. The organic layer was added with MgSO4 and filtered, The solvent was removed by distillation and distillation under vacuum to obtain the desired product, 1-(Trimethylsilyl)methyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (15g, yield = 90%). |
Yield | Reaction Conditions | Operation in experiment |
---|---|---|
73.5% | In water; at 60 - 80℃; for 2h; | 2. Take 200g lithium bistrifluoromethanesulfonimide,Dissolved in 200g pure water, heated to 60 ,Start dropping 235g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bicarbonate aqueous solution,At the end of the dropwise addition, the temperature rose to 80 C and the temperature was kept for 2 hours. 3. Lower the reaction solution to room temperature,Filtration to obtain 54g of wet filter residue (lithium carbonate and lithium bicarbonate),The filtrate is allowed to stand for separation,286 g of crude 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide salt was obtained. 4. Wash three times with pure water to obtain 243g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide salt.Distill it on a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure for 2h,Maintain the temperature at 80 , remove most of the water, cool and filter to get 6g of wet filter residue,Finally, it is dried in a vacuum drying oven at 110 for 12 hours, and the moisture content is less than 500ppm.The temperature was lowered and filtered to obtain 203g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide salt. Liquid chromatography detection product purity was 97.62%, yield was 73.5%;Ion chromatography detection: halogen ion <1ppm;ICP detection: Fe ion <1ppm, Pb ion <1ppm. |
Yield | Reaction Conditions | Operation in experiment |
---|---|---|
90.6% | In water; at 60℃; for 2h; | 3. Combine 200g of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole ethyl sulfate,243g of lithium bistrifluoromethanesulfonimide,500g pure water was put into the reaction kettle,Raise the temperature to 60 , stir the reaction for 2h, let it stand for phase separation,335 g of crude 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide was obtained. 4. The crude 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide was washed three times with pure water to obtain 312g of relatively pure 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide amine,Distill it on a rotary evaporator under reduced pressure for 2h,Keep the temperature at 80 , remove most of the water, and finally dry in a vacuum drying cabinet at 110 for 12h.301 g of the target product 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazole bistrifluoromethylsulfonimide was obtained. The purity of the product detected by liquid chromatography was 99.6%, and the yield reached 90.6%;Ion chromatography detection: halogen ion content <1ppm;ICP detection: Fe ion <1ppm, Pb ion <1ppm. |